Conference Agenda

This work analyses how the regional unemployment rate influences the well-being disadvantages of the unemployed. The “social norm of unemployment” hypothesis suggests that the negative effects of unemployment are smaller when the local unemployment rate is higher. This argument is based on the idea that the local unemployment rate is a good proxy for the social norm to work, i.e., when the unemployment rate is high, the social norm to work is weaker. Therefore, unemployed people suffer less from a negative reputation because the social and psychological costs of unemployment are lower. Contrary to the “social norm of unemployment” hypothesis, another argument states that the local unemployment rate is negatively correlated with the well-being of the unemployed. The rationale for this argument is that the shortage of jobs in high-unemployment regions is particularly harmful because the labour market prospects of the unemployed are worse than in other regions with lower unemployment rates.

We use pooled cross-sectional data: eight waves of the ESS. Two outcome variables are used: life satisfaction and happiness. Regional unemployment rates are taken from the Eurostat database. This dataset provides a large within-region variation of the unemployment rate over time and allows the estimation of within-region effects instead of between-region differences. We estimate region fixed effects and slopes models that, unlike the standard region fixed effects approach, provide an unbiased estimate of the cross-level interaction term (between being unemployed and the unemployment rate) in the absence of unobserved time-variant confounders.

The results show that the satisfaction disadvantage of the unemployed (relative to the employed) is larger when the regional unemployment rate is higher. Smaller and insignificant differences are found for happiness. These results are consistent with the argument that worse re-employment prospects in high-unemployment regions may be particularly harmful for the unemployed. In addition, the results are compared with those of the standard approach (region FE) and it is shown that the empirical method substantially affects the conclusions, suggesting that the results of analysis using the standard FE models are biased.

Nevertheless, these results do not contradict the claim that, in regions with a weaker social norm to work, unemployed people may be (relatively) more satisfied. Instead, they suggest that the unemployment rate does not necessarily reflect the social norm to work. However, social norms may take time to develop and change. They may be influenced more by the long-term level of unemployment rather than by short-term fluctuations. In this case, short-term fluctuations in the unemployment rate might be relevant for assessing future labour market prospects, and differences in long-term unemployment rates between regions might still be associated with differences in social norms. Therefore, we also estimate models where the unemployment rate is split into trend and cyclical components (long-term level and short-term fluctuations).

This paper explores how individuals' placement within the hierarchy of exploitation influences their subjective well-being and political attitudes towards welfare. Against this purpose we adopt a neo-Marxist framework based on the work of Erik Olin Wright, a prominent figure in the sociology of class, whose work is less frequently applied in political science studies. Using data from the European Social Survey (rounds 1-9), our research highlights the role of class position in shaping disparities in subjective well-being and the ensuing political divide between pro-welfare and anti-welfare stances. Initially, the paper investigates how subjective well-being varies along social class lines across European regions, categorized as NUTS 2 and NUTS 3, with differing economic growth levels. Subsequently, the focus shifts to the variation in welfare preferences, considering both class and regional factors. To further illustrate this, we employ linear mixed-effects models. These models probe into the complexities of life satisfaction and welfare preferences across Europe. We postulate that life satisfaction and welfare preferences could be influenced by one’s position in the hierarchy of exploitation, as well as by the economic vitality of their region, as indicated by GDP per capita in the respective NUTS region. Incorporating fixed effects of these socio-economic factors and random effects to account for variations across different survey years and regions, the models provide significant evidence. This approach provides essential insights into how the economic environment intersects with subjective well-being in a European context, highlighting the subtle interplay between social class, regional economic situation and welfare preferences. The results suggest that as economic conditions become more prosperous in the region where an individual resides, the statistically significant effect of an individual’s position in the hierarchy of exploitation on subjective well-being and welfare preferences diminishes.

The relationship between trade unions and job satisfaction has long been addressed and many studies have demonstrated that there exists a negative relationship between trade union membership and job satisfaction: trade unions members would be more prompt to report poor job satisfaction. Such a relationship has often been considered as spurious as the inverse relationship that is observed might reflect the role of unions as a “voice” institution. However, differences exist across time and country and country-level dimensions such as union density, GDP growth and collective bargaining coverage also greatly contribute to explain discrepancies across countries.

To investigate the changing nature of the relationship between job satisfaction and union membership, we use four waves for ESS (2006, 2010, 2012 and 2020) including cross-sectional observations for employed respondents in 16 countries. Given the ordered nature of job satisfaction and the restricted number of countries and waves, the study uses an ordered logit model including country and time fixed effects with cluster-robust standard errors including a three-way interaction term between time, country and union membership. We additionally use optimal matching methods to generate membership and non-membership groups with similar covariate profiles. The model controls for covariates through three layers adjusting for job/individual characteristics, country time-varying characteristics (GINI, GDP growth, union density and collective bargaining coverage) and health and wellbeing characteristics (wellbeing, self-reported health and happiness). Estimates (in Odds Ratio – OR; indicating the odds of being satisfied) are weighted using country and population weights.

Results show heterogeneity across countries in the unadjusted model with, for instance, OR of 1.56 (95%CI=1.31; 1.85) in Belgium in 2020 against 0.72 (95%CI=0.61; 0.87) in the UK. In the matched dataset, union composition does not attenuate the relationships with respectively 1.58 (95%CI=1.33;1.87) in Belgium and 0.72 (95%CI=0.60; 0.86) in the UK. Fully adjusting the model reduces the OR for Belgium (OR=1.16, 95%CI=1.03; 1.30) but not for the UK where the negative relationship is amplified (OR=0.53, 95%CI=0.44; 0.63). There is a clear association between job satisfaction and health and related wellbeing variables as the value of the OR is clearly attenuated when adjusted for happiness and wellbeing with, for instance, an OR of 0.57 (95%CI= 0.44, 0.74) in Sweden in 2020 (matched dataset) prior wellbeing adjustment and 0.81 (95%CI=0.69, 0.94) after adjustment. Overall, results show similar trends across countries that do not drastically vary with time even though 2006 and 2020 estimates show a more positive association compared with 2010 and 2012 but a two-way interaction between union membership and year does not show significant difference.

In summary, the study shows that time variations in the relationship between trade union membership and job satisfaction is minimum with identifiable patterns across countries. Union membership composition does not explain country differences whilst structural country variable – including GINI – play an important role. Finally, the study shows that wellbeing is a strong cofounder of job satisfaction, indicating the need for more research on the associations between job satisfaction and workers’ health and wellbeing and the role played by unions in explaining such associations.

Population has been changing and bringing various challenges. In response to the changing family structures brought about by the Second Demographic Transition, this study aims to assess the impact of single parenthood on subjective well-being (SWB) in 18 European countries comparing lone-parents and co-parents considering separations and family structure. Research indicates a negative effect on several outcomes for SPFs. However, the relationship with SWB remains contradictory. This study aims to fill a gap in the literature not just at assessing whether an association exists, but also delves into the underlying mechanisms shaping this relationship, also at macro-level.

Single-parenthood is associated with strained familiar relationships, emotional stress-related problems, lower living standards and higher risk of depression. Furthermore, economic challenges—such as lower-paying and less stable jobs, particularly for mothers–can contribute to poverty and make it challenging to balance work and family. These difficulties can also impact social and personal fulfillment.

Policies that enhance income and employment opportunities of SPs lead to reduced risks of poverty and fewer familiar problems. However, the effects of these policies vary across contexts. Also, targeted policies are required to overcome disadvantages of SPFs.

The effect of a higher prevalence of SPFs is neither clear. It’s been hypothesized a process of 'normalization' and greater social acceptance, already seen for other SDT-related behaviours,that could reduce stress levels and improve post-separation familiar relationships, also due to legal reforms as jointed custody. However, studies have found an opposite association, likely due to selection effects, linked to parental conflicts and socioeconomic status.

In our research, we apply a multilevel approach to investigate the mechanisms outlined in the literature, with a specific emphasis on factors like the gender gap, contextual variables, and the effects of policies such as childcare, parental leaves, transfers, and jointed custody. As stated above, previous research has yielded mixed results. However, based on a similar analysis of ours on children’s SWB and some preliminary-descriptive analyses, we expect to find that single-parent families have lower subjective well-being than two-parent families. We also expect significant changes over time and countries, mostly driven by economic aspects but stronger and with different factors for women. At macro-level we expect a “normalization" effect and more generous policies to explain a big part of between-group differences.

To address the research questions, we use data from the European Social Survey (ESS) and OECD database. ESS data allowed us to estimate our multilevel models thanks to a large sample. We utilized all waves of the ESS, gathering data from 2002 to 2022 for 18 countries, for a final sample with 56683 parents. The choice was based on availability of data at the macro level and presence of SPF in the groups. ESS provided all the individual-level variables, OECD provided percentage of SPF in the groups and social policies information. We used a multilevel approach with individuals nested in country-period groups nested in countries (fixed-effects at 3rd level).

Initially, an ANOVA was performed on the dependent variable, then a systematic stepwise approach with multilevel linear regression was used.

This study considers how parenthood status may affect life satisfaction, and how this linkage may vary for men and women in same- and different-sex couples across various European countries. A considerable amount of research has focused on comparing subjective well-being between parents and non-parents in different-sex relationships, with most findings suggesting a positive association between parenthood and life satisfaction. Largely due to challenges in gathering sufficiently large samples for sexual minorities, research has devoted less attention to comparing this association across same-sex and different-sex couples, as well as across different national contexts. Given that sexual minority stress is often negatively linked to the well-being of individuals in same-sex relationships, it is hypothesized that parenthood may pose greater challenges for same-sex couples compared to different-sex couples. However, research has indicated that same-sex couples tend to have more equitable divisions of domestic labour, which may help mitigate the strain of caregiving responsibilities on personal well-being.

National context is also expected to play a moderating role in the association between parenthood and life satisfaction for both same-sex and different-sex couples. Policies supporting families and promoting gender equality have been shown to reduce work-life conflict and facilitate continued employment for mothers of young children. Additionally, the acceptance of same-sex partnerships within a society may influence minority stress levels and the experiences of parenthood for individuals in same-sex unions.

Regression analyses of data from 21,283 partnered respondents, including 415 in same-sex couples, from Round 10 of the European Social Survey reveals that parenthood is indeed associated with lower levels of life satisfaction for same-sex couples compared to different-sex couples, particularly when children are younger than school-age, and especially among lesbian women. This effect is more pronounced in Southern and Eastern European countries, which tend to have fewer public care services and less tolerance and legal recognition of same-sex unions. Future iterations of the paper will incorporate data from previous rounds of the European Social Surveys and explore additional factors the micro-level (employment status), meso-level (work arrangements within the couple, work conditions), and macro-level (country-level norms, gender empowerment, the availability of gay and lesbian marriage or alternative civil unions and of the possibility of adopting children) in a multi-level analytical framework. This research will provide significant insights into the experience of parenthood based on more diverse samples, including historically underrepresented populations, and clarify the circumstances under which same-sex couples can effectively manage the negative impacts of stress and flourish in their roles as parents.